Thomas (1990, 1991, 1993b) reviews the theoretical literature on emotion, noting there is little specifically yet written about women's anger that describes sufficiently the particular experience of women. Thomas examines twentieth century theories that continue to be emphasized in contemporary treatment modalities. The dominant theory, interpreted somewhat differently by William James, Sigmund Freud, and C.G. Lange was termed the hydraulic model by philosopher Robert Solomon in 1976. The human psyche is viewed as "a caldron of pressures demanding their release in action and expression" (Solomon, quoted in Thomas, 1991, p. 32). Carl Jung modified this notion with the introduction of complexes in the unconscious mind that function like independent personalities to influence action. In challenging the involuntary nature of emotion the hydraulic model demonstrates, Solomon perceived emotions as judgements about past and present situations. Persons respond to injustices acted upon them. Rather than responding out of an instinctual drive, judgements are made by the individual about a perceived violation of a moral or ideal. Maintaining "it is obvious that we make ourselves angry" (Solomon, quoted in Thomas 1993b, p. 25), and emphasizing individual action in creating emotion, Solomon's views reflect the cognitive behavioural theories of emotion becoming popular at the time. Thomas (1990) notes most modern behavioural theorists "emphasize the need to consider cognition on anger formulation" (p. 208).

The hydraulic model of emotion gave rise to the ventilationist approach to anger (Thomas 1990; 1991). Maintaining that suppressed anger is unhealthy, theorists encouraged its discharge to promote health. It is noted empirical studies have not supported this belief (Tavris, 1982; Lerner, 1985; Lerner, in Kirmer, 1990; Thomas, 1990; Thomas, 1991). In fact, there is evidence to believe the expression of anger produces both negative health consequences and increased anger and hostility (Meyer, 1988; Thomas, 1990, 1991; Droppleman & Wilt, 1993). Lerner (1985) maintains that "venting anger may serve to maintain, and even rigidify, the old rules and patterns in a relationship, thus ensuring that change does not occur" (p.4). Crockett (1986) concurs, suggesting venting anger may further incite people to find further rationales for their anger rather than focusing on solutions. In advocating the venting of rage "in containment" (p. 355), Estés (1992) suggests to do otherwise is "like throwing a lighted match onto gasoline" (p. 355).

As Tavris (1982) notes, the ventilation perspective is apparent in contemporary literature, not only among psychologists, but also among the general population as well. Valentis and Devane (1994), drawing from mythology, literature, and film, as well as interviews with women and psychotherapists, in presenting a developmental perspective, trace the genesis of anger to the "seething rage" (p. 18) of the infant at birth. In addition to the rage experienced in the separation from the warmth and security of the mother's womb, are "narcissistic wounds" (p. 20), either actual or perceived injuries experienced that invalidate autonomy and self esteem which form the primary triggers of childhood rage. Linking anger to the experience of trauma in early development, Valentis and Devane contend the rage response becomes buried in the subconscious and "is primed to operate according to these early patterns" (p. 21). In later life a woman's therapeutic task is to "evacuate the site of the primary wound until the hurt is finally acknowledged and released" (p. 21).

In critiquing the hydraulic and ventilationist theories, Thomas (1991) proposes a new model for the conceptualization of women's anger that presently guides research in the Women's Mental Health Research Group at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville. The model includes three categories: appraisal concepts, self-perceptions such as perceived stress, values, and self-esteem a woman has that affect such factors as depression or health status, modifying factors, sociodemographic characteristics, her propensity to become angry (trait anger, described as a relatively stable personality characteristic), health habits, and role responsibilities that modify her self perception, and outcome variables such as depression, anger expression modes, excessive eating or smoking. The model is cyclical, with one factor influencing another. For example, "the burdens of fulfilling multiple role responsibilities influence both perceptions of stress and self esteem and outcome variables like general physical health status or depression" (p. 45). A woman's perceived level of stress becomes a principal factor in this model, as stress potentially leads to "unhealthy anger expression modes, depressive illness, or other adverse consequences" (p. 44). The model recognizes however, that modifying factors may intervene to effect an outcome that is more beneficial. The model recognizes social context and the diversity of race, economics, and though not explicitly stated, sexual orientation as factors affecting the expression of women's anger, an analysis not apparent in previous theoretical approaches.

A brief explication of contemporary theories of emotion and their relation to anger is outlined below.

Emphasizing hidden, unconscious motivational forces that underlie and influence behaviour, psychoanalytic approaches explore the unconscious to make perceptions available to the client at a conscious level. Approaches are insight oriented, believing if individuals understand their anger they will be able to resolve it.

Psychoanalytic approaches further view emotions "to be drive-related; repression of these powerful drives is deemed unhealthy" (Rapaport, cited in Thomas, 1990, p. 205). Psychological or psychosomatic illness is believed to develop if emotions are not discharged. Thomas quotes a 1987 psychiatric nursing text:

[T]here is a need for the discharge of the tension. It is possible to suppress the overt expression of anger, but sooner or later, perhaps in a very different form, the tension will be released. The chronically angry person may develop a duodenal ulcer, become depressed, or explode inappropriately at a minor mishap....Direct expression of anger at the time that it occurs and toward the immediate cause is the healthiest and most satisfying way of releasing the tension.

(Stuart & Sundeen, quoted in Thomas, 1990 pp. 205-206)

The debate regarding the perceived benefits of the expression of anger, noted above, is prevalent in the literature.

Behavioural theorists hold that it is necessary to consider thought processes in anger formulations. Anger is considered to be a judgement, a "learned response to environmental stimuli" (Skinner, cited in Thomas, 1990, p. 208). Experiments have demonstrated that individuals duplicate behaviour that is rewarded. A child learns that anger works when a temper tantrum results in a positive outcome. Thomas (1990) cites the 1985 research by Novaco that maintains that the impetus to anger comes from internal thought processes. Novaco maintains "there is no direct relationship between external events and anger. The arousal of anger is a cognitively mediated process" (Novaco, quoted in Thomas, 1990, p. 208). Treatment approaches focus on "relaxation or humour counterconditioning (based on the premise that anger and relaxation or humour are incompatible responses to stimuli); social skills and assertion training; instrumental conditioning; and cognitive-behavioral modalities" (p. 208). Studies reporting significant support for the usefulness of these various methods in anger reduction are noted below.

Emphasizing the interpersonal nature of anger, this perspective suggests anger results to ward off anxiety that develops when expectations of others are not met (Sullivan, cited in Thomas, 1990). Such theories recognize that emotional patterns are learned within a cultural context and individuals develop gender specific expressions of emotion. Significant also is a focus on environmental factors contributing to emotional content and expressed behaviour (Bernard, 1990; Greenspan, 1993; Gwynn, 1993; Singer, Bussey, Song, & Lunghofer, 1995; Sommers, in press). Averill's 1982 research demonstrated that "anger is a highly interpersonal emotion that cannot be understood without consideration of the social context" (quoted in Thomas, 1993b, p. 30).

Humanistic orientations view emotion "neither as an expression of instincts nor as a learned response" (Thomas, 1990, p. 211), but as "orienting information" (Thomas, 1993b, p. 27) that provides individuals with necessary evidence upon which to make decisions. Anger, thus might signal that one's rights have been violated. A therapeutic intervention would assist persons in increasing awareness of emotion, and the consequent incentive to change. Thomas (1993b) notes the ability to fully experience feelings has been shown to "be predictive of positive psychotherapy outcomes" (Rogers, cited in Thomas, p. 27).

The psychobiological perspective recognizes the basis of evolutionary theory that "aggressive behaviour is a product of natural selection...and all animals, including humans, have the innate ability to elicit this fundamental trait" (Fishbein, 1992, p. 101). Inborn differences in biological processes in females and males account for differing aggressive behaviour patterns. This perspective perceives that "[i]n general, human males are inherently more aggressive due to the influence of biochemical mechanisms" (p. 101). Acknowledging that both biological and sociocultural conditions influence aggressive response, research focuses on "the roles of (a) neurological systems responsible for the inhibition of extreme behaviors and emotions, (b) the ability to learn from modeling and experience, and (c) availability of family and community resources and support mechanisms" (p. 102).

Feminism may be defined as "...a form of oppositional knowledge, aimed at disrupting accepted notions of women's behavior and women's proper place, and challenging customary categories and meanings that constitute our knowledge of gender" (Marecek & Hare-Mustin, quoted in White & Kowalski, 1994, p. 488). Inherent in this definition is an analysis of power differences in a culture that considers men to be more aggressive (White & Kowalski, 1994, pp. 492-493) than women. Feminist theory challenges the notion that anger and aggressive acts in women are labelled deviant, pathological, and unfeminine, a labelling that White and Kowalski maintain perpetuates power differences.